The Manufacturing Of DNA Vaccines

The Manufacturing Of DNA Vaccines A detailed design and layout of the facility for the manufacturing of DNA vaccines was developed. The factors foremost in the design and layout of the DNA vaccines facility were compliance to current good manufacturing practices (cGMP), regulatory guidelines, health, safety and environment, effective production, optimum material and personnel flow, effective cleanliness, minimisation of contamination and enhance maintenance. The total site area is 108m X 91m (9828m2) and plant/production area is 32m X 20m (640m2) with space for future expansion. To reduce the impact of airborne particles, relative humidity, pressure and temperature on the purity, efficacy, and safety DNA vaccines product, a containment/cleanrooms of class 100 was design with controlled-air environment with access via airlock, HVAC and high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters. In order to conform and comply to current good manufacturing practices (cGMP) and regulations, the following key component of cGMP were i ncorporated into the design, validation master plan (VMP), standard operating procedures (SOPs), appropriate quality control (QC), cleaning-in-place (CIP), sterilisation-in-place (SIP), trained personnel, documentation, health, safety and environment, utilities required and waste treatment process. The entire project timeline was estimated with the aid of Gantt chart project management technique to be a year and 4.5 months with reference to literatures on similar projects. 1.1 Introduction The demand for DNA vaccines for gene therapy, vaccination and for the treatment of diseases such as cancer, malaria, swine flu, HIV, melanoma, etc. is on the increase (Prather et al., 2003; Williams et al., 2009). This is because DNA vaccines triggers cellular and humoral immune responses, safe and stable (Prather et al., 2003). Therefore, there is need to design manufacturing facility for DNA vaccines production to meet the rising demand. However, the design, operations and layout of the manufacturing facility must conform and comply to standards, specifications and guidelines stipulated by regulatory authorities such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA), European Medicines Evaluation Agency (EMEA), World Health Organisation (WHO) and the regulation of the country in which the facility is to be constructed. In addition to meeting this regulations and guidelines the DNA vaccines production process, design and premi ses of its manufacture must conform to good design practices (GDP) and current good manufacturing practices (cGMP) (Shamlou, 2003; Przybylowski et al., 2007). The commercial scale production of DNA vaccines is justified by economics/cost, health, safety and environment, compliance to legal standards and production under Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) (Shamlou, 2003). This is to ensure that manufacturing processes are controlled and performed according to design specifications and operational procedures in order to ensure that quality is built into the product (DNA vaccines) to assure safety, efficacy, purity and identity consistently (Przybylowski et al., 2007). In addition, GMP requirements are open ended, however the International Society of Pharmaceutical Engineers (ISPE) has enumerated the principal steps to current GMP which include standard operational procedures (SOPs), qualification and validation of process performance, design, quality control testing, adequate process control, sterilization in place (SIP), cleaning in place (CIP), layout design, quality management, documentation and audit of facility as necessary to ensuring specification and maintenance of product identity and compliance to regulations (WHO, FDA, MHRA, etc.) and current good manufacturing practices (cGMP) (Day, 2004). The issue of location for the manufacturing facility is crucial to its profitability as it is influenced by raw material supply, transportation, utilities, environmental impact, waste disposal, local community considerations, personnel, climate, plant size and availability of land (Sinnott, 2005). Moreover, before the design and installation of a new facility for pharmaceutical and biopharmaceutical product manufacture, an environmental impact assessment (EIA) is perform and approved (Davda, 2004). Hitherto, the design of any manufacturing facility must integrate the design of a treatment process and safe disposal of the waste generated to specified legal standards by regulatory authorities and eliminate/minimise harm to health and safety of personnel, environment and product contamination. The manufacturing facility layout must be designed to aid good raw material flow, waste flow and personnel flow around the factory to reduce risk, cross contamination and ensure that production ac tivities and factory operations are performed smoothly and follow a defined procedure. The pharmaceutical manufacturing process must be conducted in clean environment and clean rooms in which the temperature, pressure, air borne particles and relative humidity are controlled to specified conditions by regulators (U.S. FDA, WHO, ISO, MHRA, etc). All these are the component of current Good Manufacturing Practices (cGMP) to build quality assurance, consistency and safety of therapeutic product (DNA vaccines) to human life (Signore and Terry, 2008). The entire operations and activity should be performed by trained and competent personnel and quality management for a satisfactory quality assurance (QA/QC). 1.2 Aims and objectives 1. The defined goal of this project is to develop a detailed design and layout of a manufacturing facility for the production of DNA vaccines for commercial scale, applying current Good Manufacturing Practices (cGMP) and in compliance to regulatory guideline (FDA, FDA, MHRA, WHO, etc.). 2. Provide detail methods for qualification and validation of the design and layout, performance, quality control and enumerate the personnel/staff involved in the project. 3. Estimate the timeline of the project. 2.1 Process overview DNA vaccines production mainly starts on a bench scale through pilot scale to large scale production (Ferreira et al., 2000; Bequette et al., 2004). The design of a large scale facility for the manufacturing of DNA vaccines involves the selection of suitable plasmid DNA constructs/vectors (ColE1-type vectors, pUC vectors, pBR322 plasmid vector, etc.) that will replicate at high copy numbers, the production microorganism cell bank (Escherichia Coli), subsequently followed by fermentation process in the bioreactor under optimum conditions and control media (temperature, pH, pressure, etc.) to maximise cell growth, cell lysis to break the cells to release the DNA, isolation by precipitation of genomic DNA, cell debris, proteins and RNA, purification by anion exchange chromatographic technique because DNA is negatively charged, formulation and blending, sterile filling, packaging and storage in the fridge (Ferreira et al., 2000; Prather et al., 2003; Przybylowski et al., 2007).   2.2 Design of flowsheet The conceptual design of the process flowsheet for DNA vaccines production under cGMP was based on the knowledge of the process block diagram in Fig.1 above and the performance of the associated unit operations. The process flowsheet shown in Fig.2 is interconnection of the various unit operations, fermentation, the downstream processing (cell lysis, precipitation, clarification and concentration, primary purification (anion-exchange chromatography) and secondary purification (size exclusion chromatography)) and blending and formulation of the bulk product into usable form (Prazeres and Ferreira, 2004). Each pieces of equipment in the process flow sheet are designed to conform and comply with standard and code of practice of either International Organisation for Standardization (ISO), British Standard Institution (BSI), American Petroleum Institute (API), American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM), American National Standard Institution (ANSI), etc. to ensure safety, selection of suitable material of construction, and also equipment manufacturers work to produce facilities according to standardized design and size (Sinnott, 2005). Also each pieces of equipment are hygienically designed with good polished surfaces and piping for easy CIP and SIP, elimination of dead zones and sharp edges to avoid microbial growth and contamination and constructed with stainless steel material to eliminate contamination. The final product DNA vaccines are sterilely filled into vials and stored at -20oC in the freezer (Przybylowski et al., 2007). 3.1 Site layout design The site layout was designed to prevent product contamination, environmental pollution and to safeguard the health and safety of personnel. The various unit operations shown on the process flowsheet in Fig.2 and the ancillary buildings required to support the manufacturing facility for DNA vaccine production are laid out to give an economical flow of raw materials to final product storage, flow of personnel and waste around the production site to conform to good manufacturing practice (GMP), reduce risk and product contamination (Sinnott, 2005; Signore and Terry, 2008). The site layout design in Fig.3 was done with consideration to future expansion of the DNA production. Clean rooms, waste treatment area, hazardous process and raw materials were isolated and arranged for safety of product, personnel and environment. The size of the site is 108m X 91m (9828m2) as shown in Fig.3 and the ancillary buildings and support services required for the manufacturing facility are: Storages for raw materials and DNA vaccines. Quality control laboratory. Maintenance workshops and warehouse. Utilities: steam, compressed air, power generation, refrigeration, water (WFI), CO2, N2 etc. Cleaning-in-place (CIP) and Sterilisation-in-place (SIP). Effluent treatment and disposal plant. Process control room Administrative offices Fire stations and other emergency services Amenities required include: roads and car parks, first aid centre, canteen, security, rest room, changing room, training room and visitors centre. 3.2 Facility layout design The detailed design and layout of the DNA vaccines production rooms and equipment is designed to minimise risk, reduce cross contamination, permit effective cleaning and sterilisation of external and internal surfaces of process equipment by the use of clean in place (CIP) and sterilisation in place (SIP), enhance maintenance and control of clean rooms temperature, pressure and relative humidity (RH) under standard operating procedures (SOPs) (Przybylowski et al., 2007). The facility layout design also considered the cleanrooms, equipment and the flow of materials and personnel as key factors that impact on manufacturing cost, operational procedures and productivity (Drira et al., 2007). The DNA vaccines manufacturing facility layout design is 32m X 20m (640m2) in size as shown in Fig.4 to ensure efficiency and safety of the production environment and manufacturing process which are dependent on the layout of the facility (Jacobson et al., 2002). 3.2.1 Cleanrooms/containment design One of the principles of GMP is cleanliness and aseptic operations to prevent product contamination by microorganisms, particulate generated during plant operations and changes in room conditions (temperature, relative humidity, etc.). Therefore, DNA vaccines which are biological drugs are manufactured in clean rooms, that is, a room in which the air quality (airborne particles), the temperature, the pressure and relative humidity are controlled to prevent contamination by impurities, dust and microorganisms in the atmosphere and in the ambient air, in order to protect its purity, efficacy and safety (Sutherland, 2008). The layout and design of the production rooms was according to the International Standards Organisation (ISO) 14644-1 cleanrooms classification shown in Table 2 below. The raw materials, fermentation, purification, blending and formulation and product storage clean rooms are designed for class 100 biosafety cabinet fitted with high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) fi lters and HVAC systems to ensure the entry of clean air into the cleanrooms and exit of dirty air inside the rooms (Sutherland, 2008). The flow of air in and out of the cleanrooms is laminar. Other components of the cleanrooms include: Separate airlocks for entry and exit doors for personnel, raw materials and waste products. An inlet port for fresh purified air. An exit vents fitted with activated carbon filter to purify contaminated air before discharge to ensure environmental safety (Sutherland, 2008). Cleanrooms air pressure is maintained below atmospheric to prevent outward leakage. Nonslip floors, electricity, light appropriate and aseptic processing hood. Humidifiers to maintain and control cleanrooms relative humidity and temperatures 4.1 Raw materials Variations in raw materials composition is known to impact on the quality of DNA vaccines produced and also the operations of the plant. Therefore, raw materials require quality control check before used. The raw materials, reagents and utilities required for the DNA vaccines manufacturing facility are: plasmid DNA vectors, nutrients, glucose, water for injection (WFI), sterile air, salt, buffer capacity (to stabilise pH of fermentation), liquid nitrogen N2, and antibiotic, alkaline, master cell bank (MCB) and working cell banks (WCB). These are placed in the quarantine storage room and undergo quality control testing to ensure that specification are met before used for DNA vaccines production for quality assurance (QA/QC). The flow of materials from the raw materials to the final product (DNA vaccines) is shown in FIG. above and the final DNA vaccines products are stored in a sterile room in a freezer at -20oC (Przybylowski et al., 2007). 4.2 Personnel The compliance to current good manufacturing practices (cGMP) and regulatory guideline depends on people and good management structure. It is essential when developing new facility to integrate all relevant personnel from production, logistics, quality control and engineering in the inception phase of the design and layout. Therefore, for a satisfactory quality assurance of the DNA vaccines production, facility design and layout, the interactions and inputs from various disciplines such as chemists, chemical engineers, biochemical engineers, biologists, microbiologist, pharmacists, civil engineers, project managers, mechanical engineers, electrical engineers, architect, cost engineer and many others are required to carry out defined tasks and responsibilities. The flow of personnel around the designed facility layout during operations is shown in FIG. 4.3 Qualification and validation The qualification and validation of pharmaceutical manufacturing facilities at regular intervals is an integral part of good manufacturing practices (GMP). This is documentary evidence that assures that the DNA vaccines production facility is performing satisfactorily and consistently to specification for the intended purpose (Day, 2004). To do this, a validation master plan (VMP) is drawn up which include: design qualification (DQ), installation qualification (IQ), operational qualification (OQ) and performance qualification (PQ) to confirm that all was done according to specifications (Day, 2004; Chaloner-larsson et al., 1997). However, an internal audit of the facility and instruments is also conducted to ensure compliance and implementation of cGMP and regulatory guidelines. 4.3.1 Design qualification (DQ) Design qualification is carried on the following production pieces of equipment of the manufacturing facility such as bioreactor, centrifuge, anion-exchange chromatography, size exclusion chromatography, microfiltration system, ultra-filtration system, HVAC systems and lyophilizer, for verification and documentation as a prove to show that the equipment designs conforms to regulatory standards such as ISO 9000, BSI, etc. 4.3.2 Installation qualification (IQ) The IQ is a documented verification that confirms that the manufacturing facility layout, HVAC systems, supporting utilities (steam, CIP, SIP, etc.) and process equipment are built and installed in compliance to the designed specification and manufacturers recommendations (Chaloner-Larsson et al., 1997). The IQ document for each equipment/system contains name of equipment/system, description, model and identification number, the location, utility requirements, any safety feature, date, personnel and approver. 4.3.3 Operational qualification (OQ) The OQ is the documentary verification of the manufacturing facility to confirm that each pieces of equipment operates in accordance to designed specifications and operation conditions and will consistently (Day, 2004). This is accomplished by testing control systems, alarms, switches, and providing standard operations procedures (SOPs) for the operations of the manufacturing facility. 4.3.4 Performance qualification (PQ) Performance qualification (PQ) is a documented verification that confirms that the manufacturing facility and the supporting utilities will consistently perform to required specification under the designed operating ranges to production the DNA vaccines. The following systems and pieces of equipment are validated for performance check: purification processes, bioreactor, HVAC systems, autoclave, CIP, SIP, oven, pure steam generation system, purified water and water for injection systems, centrifuge and lyophilizer. 4.4 Quality assurance and Quality control (QA/QC) The consistent production of DNA vaccines to meet therapeutic specification of safety, purity, efficacy and potency depends on good quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) performed by qualified persons (QP). Quality control of the DNA vaccines is one of the key component of current good manufacturing practices (cGMP) and regulatory guideline of U.S. FDA, WHO, MHRA, ISO 9000 etc. It involves testing procedures employed to check that the DNA vaccines product are uniform from batch-to-batch and raw materials used for its production meet the specification, quality and standard. The quality control testing laboratory consists of the following assays for determining quality of raw materials and product purity, efficacy and safety: High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to determine the percentage of RNA, supercoiled and nicked. pH meter test for residual buffer salts and alkaline. Agarose gel electrophoresis (AGE) test for plasmid DNA vaccine purity, determine RNA and genomic DNA presence in the product. Gas chromatography test for the presence of ethanol, determine plasmid size Flame ionization detector (FID) test for the presence of isopropanol in the product. Transfection/Immunofluorescent staining test for potency of plasmid DNA vaccines. Kinetic chromogenic limulus amoebacyte lysate (LAL) test to quantify the presence of endotoxin in the product Sodium dodecylsulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) test for the quantity of proteins in the product (DNA vaccines). GeneQuant spectrophotometer test to quantify the purity of the DNA vaccines product. Bicinchoninic acid (BCA) assay quantify the amount of proteins present in the bulk product. Mass spectrometer, measuring, weighing, recording and control instruments calibrated regularly. The analytical instruments are validated to ensure performance. The DNA vaccines must meet at least minimum specification, purity, efficacy, safety and quality set by regulatory authority after sterile filling before released (Przybylowski et al., 2007; Prather et al., 2003). 4.4.1 Product testing Prior to the release of the DNA vaccines after blending and formulation, the quality control department must test each batch for purity, identity, efficacy, safety and potency using the analytical assays mentioned above, and if the result does not meet regulatory specifications the batch will not be released (Prazeres and Ferreira, 2004). Table 1 below shows an example of DNA vaccines purity and quality specification. 4.5 Documentation Documentation of all the activities and operations is a key requirement for GMP, regulatory bodies, and helpful for management structure, traceability of every batch history, planning, elimination of errors, effective communication, records keeping and design and layout of the DNA vaccines facility. Regulatory authorities such as FDA, EMEA and WHO require documentary evidence as prove that the DNA vaccines facility will perform consistently in compliance to cGMP. The DNA vaccines project documentation include: standard operational procedures (SOPs), design qualification, installation qualification, facility layout design, specification sheets for each pieces of equipment, performance qualification, quality control records, process flow sheet, site plan, personnel records, licence, commissioning, validation master plan (VMP), packaging, labelling, etc. both on paper and electronically (Signore and Terry, 2008; Sinnott, 2005). 4.6 Utilities Utilities are the support services required for effective design, layout and manufacturing process of DNA vaccines, they include: Potable water, USP purified water used for cleaning in place (CIP) to clean process equipment. Water for injection (WFI) used for media preparation, fermentation media and rinsing of equipment after CIP. Clean steam for sterilisation in place (SIP) to sterilise the process equipment after each batch. Electricity for lightening, instrumentation, analytical instrument, etc. Sterile gases such as filtered sterile air for fermentation process, nitrogen N2 for working cell bank storage, heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) system. Refrigeration for the storage of the DNA vaccines product at -20oC. 4.6.1 Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) System Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) system is a component of the production clean rooms design and layout, it plays a vital role in ensuring that the manufactured DNA vaccines product quality, efficacy, safety and purity is not impacted by room temperature, relative humidity (RH), air borne particles, pressure and cross contamination in accordance to standards and classifications of rooms by ISO 14644-1, US Fed. Std. 209, BSS5295, EEC, etc. (Zyl, 2005). The HVAC systems for this manufacturing facility include: High efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters to control air borne particles, dust and microorganisms of the clean rooms. Desiccant dehumidifiers/refrigerated dehumidifiers are used to monitor and control the temperature and relative humidity (RH) of the rooms in order to comply with raw materials and DNA vaccines product requirement. Airlocks and air handling unit (AHU) are put in place for pressure monitoring, control and maintenance of pressure cascade with the production rooms. 4.6.2 Water and clean steam systems Purified water, water for injection (WFI) and clean steam are essential utilities generated on site and distributed for use in DNA vaccines production, clean-in-place (CIP), sterilisation-in-place (SIP), and media preparation (Robbins, 2010). In order to ensure safety, purity and efficacy of the DNA vaccines the water used for its production is sterile water for injection (WFI). The WFI is produced from purified water by distillation/reverse osmosis to meet the required standard of purity specified by the United State Pharmacopeia (USP) (pH 5.0-7.0, nonpyrogenic and antimicrobial agent). The WFI is stored at elevated temperature (80-95oC) to eliminated microbial growth, and the system constructed with stainless steel to eliminate contamination (Robbins, 2010). The WFI system design is shown in FIG. 4.7 Waste treatment and management The system for treating the waste generate from the DNA vaccines manufacturing facility is an integral part of the design of the facility, layout and good manufacturing practices (GMP). The major waste generate from the production process are genomic DNA of the host cells, RNA, proteins, cell debris, salts, endotoxins and plasmid isoforms (Ferreira et al., 2000). The waste is treated to regulatory standards (BS, ISO, etc.) to avoid harm to health and safety of personnel and environment (HSE), pollution and eliminate cross contamination of the product. The system for treating the waste is illustrated in FIG. below WWWW Incineration Autoclaved Waste Discharge Autoclave 4.7.1 Health, Safety and Environment (HSE) The DNA vaccines production microorganism poses some hazard. The environmental impact assessment (EIA) of the DNA vaccines production system therefore becomes a key part of the design and layout of the manufacturing facility (Prazeres and Ferreira, 2004). However, the environmental impact assessment (EIA) study and the design will require approval from environmental protection agency before the facility is built (Davda, 2004). To ensure that health, safety and environmental regulations are met, the process design and layout is geared towards minimisation of waste generation, safety of product, safety and health of personnel and incorporation of waste treatment process before discharge to the environment. In addition, the personnel will also be provided with personal protective equipment (PPE) such as hand gloves, gowns, goggles, etc. to work with. 4.8 Legislation and regulation The manufacture of DNA vaccines is highly regulated to ensure that it is safe, efficacious and pure for humans, and also its production carried out in accordance to current GMP (Plumb, 2005). Therefore, before the DNA vaccines can be marketed they must be licence from the relevant regulatory bodies such as the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) in the United Kingdom, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States, the EMEA, WHO and so on (Smith and Dennis, 2001). The manufacturing facility used for the production of the DNA vaccines must be licence too (Plumb, 2005). These licences are obtained if and only if the manufacturing facility design, layout and premises of its manufacture conform and comply to current good manufacturing practices (cGMP) and with regulatory standards, guidelines and specifications stipulated by MHRA, FDA, WHO, EMEA, ISO, etc. Hitherto, the company must also provide detailed documentary evidence about the safety, purity an d efficacy of the DNA vaccines and the consistency of its manufacturing process. Signor and Terry reported that the incorporation of current good manufacturing practices (cGMP) into good design practices (GDP) at the inception of the manufacturing facility will ensure that regulatory conditions are met (Signor and Terry, 2008). The regulatory guidelines specify the requirements for the pharmaceutical manufacturing facility, not the methods to achieving it. The regulatory bodies functions include: safeguard public health, licensing, monitoring DNA vaccines post-marketing, regulating clinical trials and publish quality standards. 5.1 Project timeline This project has a definite start, middle and end, which consist of several activities ranging from the environmental impact assessment and design approval, construction to commissioning executed in a defined order to bring the project to completion. It is the function of the project manager to plan, schedule and control these tasks/activities in a specified sequence and allocate materials, manpower, machinery and money to ensure that the project is completed on time (Gray and Erik, 2008). There are several project management techniques available in the literature, but to estimate the timeline of this project the Gantt chart technique was employed, which a plot of each task against time. Each bar represents a task/activity, length of the bar corresponds to the duration of the task and the position indicate the start and finish times. The timeline for key activities of the project are shown in FIG!!!!!!!!!!!!!! below, the Gantt chart was prepared with reference to (Davda, 2004). The e ntire project is expected to take a year and 4.5 months from the Gantt chart. 6.1 Recommendations 1. Legislations and regulations are subject to changes with emergent of robust technology, therefore the design of the manufacturing facility should be above the current specifications and standards. 2. A well defined and detail engineering drawings and specifications that does not require much interpretation. 3. A good relationship between project design team with relevant regulatory authorities and encouragement of their input will fortify the design of the facility and compliance to cGMP. 4. Ensure that all designs, installations and utilities are validated according to validation master plan (VMP) and are working according to design and specification of regulatory bodies. 5. Compliance with current good manufacturing practices (cGMP) at the inception of the design phase of the facility. 6. The DNA vaccines production facility should be designed and layout to harmonized the various regulations by different bodies such the US FDA, UK MHRA, EU, Japan, ISO, WHO, etc. to boost market for the product. 7. The process parameters such as temperature, pH and pressure must be carefully controlled to assure batch-to-batch identity in final product. 7.1 Conclusion Incorporating current good manufacturing practices (cGMP) from the beginning of the design and layout phase of the DNA vaccines facility, the production processes and to the manufacturing premises will ensure that all regulatory specifications are met.

Working Paper

The term module means that the questionnaire can be used as part of a larger Research experience has shown that the answers to the 24 content questions are influenced by the nationality of the respondents. This is not to say that every respondent of nationality A gives one answer and everyone of a nationality B another, but one can expect systematic differences between the average answers from a sample with nationality A and a comparable sample from nationality B (in statistical terms, an analysis of variance on the answer scores shows a significant country effect).As the relationship is statistical, the samples per country should be of sufficient size. An ideal size for a homogeneous sample is 50 respondents. Sample sizes smaller than 20 should not be used, as outlying answers by single respondents will unduly affect the results. If samples are heterogeneous (composed of unequal sub-samples) these numbers apply to the sub-samples. Next to nationality, answers to the 24 content quest ions will also reflect other characteristics of the respondents, such as their gender, age, level of education, occupation, kind of work and the point in time when they answered the questions.Therefore comparisons of countries should be based on samples of respondents who re matched on all criteria other than nationality that could systematically affect the answers. The content questions attributed to a dimension were selected because in comparisons of matched samples from ten or more countries, the mean country scores on the four questions belonging to the same dimension usually vary together (if one is high, the other is high, or low if it is a reversely formulated question; if one is low, the other is low, etc. ). In statistical terms, the mean country scores are significantly correlated.The mean country scores on questions belonging to different emissions usually do not vary together (are uncorrelated). Therefore, the 24 questions form 6 clusters of 4 questions each. As mentione d above, the dimensions measured by the VS.. Are based on country- level correlations, between mean scores of country samples. For the same two questions, country-level correlations can be very different from individual-level correlations, between the answers by the individuals within the country samples (for a clear explanation see e. G. Klein, Danseuses & Hall, 1994).Individual-level correlations produce dimensions of personality; country-level correlations produce emissions of national culture. For research results about the relationship between personality and culture see Hefted & McCrae (2004). The study of national culture dimensions belongs to anthropology, the study of individual personality belongs to psychology. The first is to the second as studying forests is to studying trees. Forests cannot be described with the same dimensions as trees, nor can they be understood as bunches of trees.What should be added to the animals, organisms and climate factors, together described by the term epitome. In reverse, trees cannot be described with the same dimensions as forests. At best one can ask in what kind of forest this tree would be most likely found, and how well it would do there. A common misunderstanding about dimensions of national culture is that they are personality types. People want to score themselves on a dimension, or worse, try to score someone else. This is called stereotyping, which is not what the dimensions are for.They do not refer to individuals, but to national societies. What a person can do is find out how the values prevailing in his or her national society differ from those in another society. As an individual, a person can express how he or she feels about the values in a particular national society, but that would still be a function of his/her personality and not necessarily show his or her national culture. Because of this, the VS.. 2013 cannot be scored at the individual level. It is not a psychological test.The tendency to as k for individual scoring of the VS.. Is stronger in some national cultures than in others. Especially in very individualist cultures, the request for individual scoring is frequent: the concept of my society (a forest) is weaker that the concept of me myself (a tree). The VS.. Should only be used by researchers who subscribe to the concept of a society differing from other societies. The six dimensions on which the VS.. 2013 is based were found in research across more than 40 countries.In a research project across 20 different organizations within the same two countries, answers to the questions that made up the cross-national dimensions did not correlate in the same way (Hefted, Enquire, Omaha' & Sanders, 1990 and Hefted, Hefted & Moving, 2010: 341-368). So the cross-national dimensions do not apply to organizational (or corporate) cultures. The answers to the VS.. Questions (dealing with values and sentiments) varied less across organizations within a country than across countries .Instead, organizational cultures differed primarily on the basis of perceptions of practices, and the organizations in the study could be compared on six dimensions of perceived practices. While the study of national culture dimensions belongs to anthropology and the study of individual personality belongs to psychology, the study of organizational cultures belongs to sociology. The dimensions of perceived practices in the Hefted et al. 1990) study relate to known distinctions from organizational sociology. A similar concern prohibits the use of the VS.. Dimensions for comparing occupations (Hefted, Hefted & Moving, 2010: 368-369).In some cases, VS.. Dimension scores can be meaningfully computed and compared for the genders (female versus male) and for successive generations (grandparents country or across countries, but in this case we recommend extending the questionnaire with locally relevant items (Hefted, Garibaldi, Melville, Tenure & evokes, 2010). 4. VS.. 2013 scores are not comparable to published scores Some enthusiastic amateurs have used the VS.. With a sample of respondents from one country and tried to draw conclusions comparing the scores they found with those in Hypotheses books (1980, 1991 , 2001 , 2005, 2010).But essential to the use of the VS.. Is that comparisons should be based on matched samples of respondents: people similar on all criteria other than nationality that could systematically affect the answers. All scores in the first two Hefted books were based on carefully matched IBM subsidiary populations. A new sample, to be comparable to these, should be a attach for the original IBM populations on all relevant criteria. Such a match is virtually impossible to make, if only because the IBM studies were done around 1970 and the point in time of the survey is one of the matching characteristics.Hypotheses books since 2001 contain scores for a number of countries not in the original IBM set, based on extensions of the research outside MO M, or in a few cases on informed estimates. Extensions of the research to countries and regions not in the original set have to be based, like any VS.. Application, on matched samples across two or more countries. These should always include one or, if possible, more of the countries from the IBM set, so that the new data can be anchored to the existing framework. Anchoring' means that the scores from the extension research should be shifted by the difference of the old and new scores for the common country (or by the mean difference in the case of more common countries). The main problem of extension research is finding matched samples across new and old countries. Examples of successful extensions are described in Hefted (2001:464-465). The VS.. 2013 has been designed for research purposes. In the classroom it has poor ace validity, as it is based on the logic of national cultures which differs from the logic of individual students. Cultures are not king-size individuals: They are wholes, and their internal logic cannot be understood in the terms used for the personality dynamics of individuals. Echo-logic differs from individual logic† (Hefted, 2001 :17; the term ecological in cross-cultural studies is used for any analysis at the societal level; it does not only refer to the natural environment). To students or audiences without a professional training in anthropology or cross-cultural research the VS.. Is to the proper tool for explaining the essence of the dimensions.In this case trainers should rather develop teaching tools using the tables of differences between societies scoring high and low on each dimension, which are based on significant Hefted & Moving, 2010: Chapters 3-8). The twenty-four content questions allow index scores to be calculated on six dimensions of national value systems as components of national cultures: Power Distance (large vs†¦ Small), Individualism vs†¦ Collectivism, Masculinity vs†¦ Femininity, Uncertaint y Avoidance (strong vs†¦ Weak), Long- vs†¦ Short-Term Orientation, and Indulgence vs†¦ Restraint.All content questions are scored on five-point scales (1-2-3-4-5). Any standard statistical computer program will calculate mean scores on five-point scales, but the calculation can also be done simply by hand. For example, suppose a group of 57 respondents from Country C produces the following scores on question 04 (importance of security of employment): 10 x answer 24 x answer 2 14 x answer 3 5 x answer 4 1 x answer 5 42 20 54 valid answers totaling 125 Three of the 57 respondents gave an invalid answer: either blank (no answer) or multiple (more than one answer).Invalid answers should be excluded from the calculation (treated as missing). The mean score in our case is: 125/54 = 2. 31. Mean scores on five-point scales should preferably be presented in two decimals. More accuracy is unrealistic (survey data are imprecise measures). Power Distance Index (PDP) Power Distanc e is defined as the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a society expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. The index formula is PDP = 35(mom – mom) + 25(mom – mom) + QPS) in which mom is the mean score for question 02, etc.The index normally has a range of about 100 points between very small Power Distance and very large Power Distance countries. C(PDP) is a constant (positive or negative) that depends on the nature of the samples; it does not affect the comparison between countries. It can be chosen by the user to shift her/his PDP scores to values between O and 100. Individualism Index (DIVIDE) Individualism is the opposite of Collectivism. Individualism stands for a society in which the ties between individuals are loose: a person is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family only.Collectivism stands for a roofs, which continue to protect them throughout their lifetime in exc hange for unquestioning loyalty. DIVIDE = 35(mom – mol) + 35(mom – mom) + C(ICC) in which mol is the mean score for question 01, etc. The index normally has a range of about 100 points between strongly collectivist and strongly individualist countries. C(ICC) is a constant (positive or negative) that depends on the nature of the samples; it does not affect the comparison between countries. It can be chosen by the user to shift his/her DIVIDE scores to values between O and 100.Masculinity Index (MASS) Masculinity is the opposite of Femininity. Masculinity stands for a society in which social gender roles are clearly distinct: men are supposed to be assertive, tough, and focused on material success; women are supposed to be more modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life. Femininity stands for a society in which social gender roles overlap: both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life. MASS = 35(mom – mom ) + 35(mom – mom) + corn) in which mom is the mean score for question 05, etc.The index normally has a range of about 100 points between strongly feminine and strongly masculine countries. C(MFC) is a constant (positive or negative) that depends can be chosen by the user to shift her/his MASS scores to values between O and 100. Uncertainty Avoidance Index (AJAX) Uncertainty Avoidance is defined as the extent to which the members of institutions and organizations within a society feel threatened by uncertain, unknown, ambiguous, or unstructured situations. AU' = 4001118 – mom)+ 25(mom – mom) + qua) in which mom is the mean score for question 18, etc.The index normally has a range of about 100 points between weak Uncertainty Avoidance and strong Uncertainty Avoidance countries. C(AU) is a constant (positive r negative) that depends on the nature of the samples; it does not affect the comparison between countries. It can be chosen by the user to shift his/her I-JAG scores to values between O and 100. Long Term Orientation is the opposite of Short Term Orientation. Long Term Orientation stands for a society which fosters virtues oriented towards future rewards, in particular adaptation, perseverance and thrift.Short Term orientation stands for a society which fosters virtues related to the past and present, in particular respect for tradition, preservation of â€Å"face†, and fulfilling social obligations. LTO = – mom) + 25(mom – mom) + C(IS) n which mom is the mean score for question 13, etc. The index normally has a range of about 100 points between very short term oriented and very long term oriented countries. C(l's) is a constant (positive or negative) that depends on the nature of the samples; it does not affect the comparison between countries. It can be chosen by the user to shift her/his L TO scores to values between O and 100.Indulgence versus Restraint Index (IVR) Indulgence stands for a society which allows rel atively free gratification of some desires and feelings, especially those that have to do with leisure, merrymaking with rinds, spending, consumption and sex. Its opposite pole, Restraint, stands for a society which controls such gratification, and where people feel less able to enjoy their lives. The index formula is IVR = – ml 1) + – mom) + COO in which ml is the mean score for question 11, etc. The index normally has a range of about 100 points between high indulgence and high restraint.C(IR) is a constant (positive or negative) that depends on the nature of the samples; it does not affect the comparison between countries. It can be chosen by the user to shift her/his IVR scores to values between O and 100. As country-level correlations differ from individual-level correlations, answers on questions used to measure a country-level dimension do not necessarily correlate across individuals. A reliability test like Cockroach's alpha should in this case not be based on individual scores but on country mean scores. Obviously this presupposes data from a sufficient number of countries, in practice at least ten.For comparison across fewer countries the reliability of the VS.. At the country level has to be taken for granted; it can indirectly be shown through the validity of the scores in predicting dependent variables. The IBM database (Hefted, 1980) allows to compute Cockroach alphas for the first four dimensions across 40 countries (39 for AAU, 33 for PDP because of missing data). Power Distance Index (3 items): Alpha = . 842 Individualism Index (6 items): Alpha = . 770 Masculinity Index (8 items): Alpha = . 760 Uncertainty Avoidance Index (3 items) Alpha = . 15 The rule of thumb for test reliability is a value over . 700. The new items in the new version were chosen because of their similarity to items in reliable other studies, but the reliability of the new dimension scores cannot be proven a prior'. The VS.. 2013 is copyrighted, but may be fre ely used for academic research projects. Consultants who want to use the VS.. 2013 periodically should pay a license fee based on the number of copies administered per year. The same holds for use by companies in employee surveys. Information on rates is available from the copyright holder ([email  protected] L) 9. History of the VS.. 2013 The original questions from the 1966-1973 Hermes (MOM) attitude survey questionnaires used for the international comparison of work-related values were listed in Hefted (1980, Appendix 1). Appendix 4 of the same book presented the iris Values Survey Module for future cross-cultural studies. It contained 27 content questions and 6 demographic questions. This VS.. 80 was a selection from the IBM questionnaires, with a few questions added from other sources about issues missing in the IBM list and Judged by the author to be of potential importance.In the 1984 abridged paperback edition of Hefted (1980) the original IBM questions were not included, but the VS.. 80 was. A weakness of the VS.. 80 was its dependence on the more or less accidental set of questions used in the IBM surveys. The IBM survey questionnaire had not really been imposed for the purpose of reflecting international differences in value patterns. However, the IBM questions could only be replaced by other questions after these had been validated across countries; and to be validated, they had to be used in a large number of countries first.Therefore in 1981 Hefted through the newly- founded Institute for Research on Intercultural Cooperation (IIRC) issued an experimental extended version of the VS.. (VS.. 81). On the basis of an analysis of its first results, a new version was issued in 1982, the VS.. 82. This was widely used for the next twelve years. 3 of the questions were needed to compute scores on the four dimensions identified by Hefted. The other questions were included for experimental use. Some questions in the VS.. 82 were only applicable to employe d respondents.Thus the instrument could not be used for entrepreneurs, students, and respondents without a paid Job. The number of replications using the VS.. 82 in Iris's files increased, but, unfortunately, it turned out that the samples from different researchers were insufficiently matched for producing a reliable new VS†¦ This changed when Michael Hope published his Ph. D. Hess on a survey study of elites (Syllabus Seminar Alumni) from 19 countries, using among other instruments the VS.. 82 (Hope, 1990). Eighteen of these countries were part of the IBM set, but besides USA all of them were from Europe.Hope's data base was therefore extended by adding results from replications in six countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America that could be considered somewhat matched with the Hope set. In the meantime, the research of Michael Harris Bond from Hong Kong, using the Chinese Value Survey (Chinese Culture Connection, 1987), had led to the identification f a fifth dimension: Lon g-Term versus Short-Term Orientation (Hefted & Bond, 1988; Hefted, 2001: Chapter 7). In the new version of the VS.. Published in 1994 (the VS.. 94), this dimension appeared for the first time together with the other four.The questionnaire was also adapted to respondents without a paid Job. Accumulated experience with the use of the VS.. 94 in the next 14 years led to the publication of an updated VS.. 08. In the meantime, many new sources of cross- cultural survey information became available. One was an unpublished Master's Thesis (Van Bug, 2006) reporting on the Internet administration of the VS.. 94 among active members of the student association EASIES in 41 countries, collecting some 2,200 valid answers, a response rate of 24%.We also looked for questions correlated with the IBM dimensions in the newly available sources, including the huge World Values Survey database freely accessible on Internet (Ingather and associates, 1998, 2004, 2007). In 2007, Michael Moving published a book integrating all available old and new databases, and we invited him to Join the VS.. Team. Moving (2007) proposed three new dimensions: Exclusion versus Universalism, Indulgence versus Restraint, and Monumentality versus Flexibility (flexibility plus nullity).From these, Exclusion versus Universalism across 41 countries was strongly correlated with Power Distance and Collectivism (both r = . 74), so we did not treat it as a new dimension. Indulgence versus Restraint was uncorrelated with any of the five dimensions in the VS.. 94 and it added new insights into national cultural differences, so we accepted it as a new and sixth dimension. Monumentality versus Flexibility was significantly correlated with Short Term Orientation (r = . 68 across 16 overlapping countries) and less strongly with Power

The Characteristics Of Autism Spectrum Disorders ( Asd )

1. What are the characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)? As described in the textbook, there is a broad range of characteristics associated with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). One of the first characteristics noted with ASD is language deficits, or using language in â€Å"odd† ways. As stated in the textbook, â€Å"Children with classic autism may be nonverbal. Alternatively, they may have significant language difficulties, so that their language may consist primarily of echolalia or delayed echolalia†, (E. Amanda Boutot, 2011, pp. 6,9). Additionally, â€Å"Children with Asperger Syndrome (AS) frequently have difficulty in conversations and following up on statements made by others†, (E. Amanda Boutot, 2011, p. 18). Individuals with AS may also take a literal interpretation of language, as well as, speak with an unusual volume, pitch, or rate. Other characteristics of ASD are social differences, such as a lack of theory of mind (mind blindness), joint attention, play (lack of imaginative play), and imitation of others. The textbook states, â€Å"It should come as no surprise, then, that one of the earliest symptoms of autism noted by parents are differences in social behaviors†, (E. Amanda Boutot, 2011, p. 19). It is also noted that some children diagnosed with ASD may lack emotional facial expressions and affect. Children diagnosed with an ASD may have sensory concerns, such as hypersensitivity (over) or hyposensitivity (under) to objects and the environment.Show MoreRelatedLanguage Development Is A Central Characteristic Of Autism Spectrum Disorder ( Asd )1774 Words   |  8 PagesDelays in language development is a central characteristic of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Walker and Snell (2013) suggest that children who demonstrate poor communication skills often times are more likely to engage in problematic behaviors. The literature provides substantial evidence that functional communication training (FCT) is an effective intervention to use as a replacement behavior to d ecrease maladaptive behaviors for children with ASD. In a study conducted by Lambert, Bloom, andRead MoreTypes Of Students With Disabilities1446 Words   |  6 PagesI was given the opportunity to observe different types of students with disabilities in a self-contained special education class. I viewed many different types of disabilities such as Autism Spectrum Disorder, speech and language impairment, intellectual disabilities, visual impairment, and physical disabilities. Four out of the six students in the self-contained class I observed lacked social, communication, academic, and some behavior problems. Due to many of the students lacking these componentsRead MoreAutism Spectrum Disorder ( Asd )909 Words   |  4 PagesAutism spectrum disorder (ASD) refers to a group of neurodevelopmental disorders that is characterized by abnormalities relating to social, behavioral, cognitive and language skills. The genetic architecture of ASD is comprised of a variety of rare mutatio ns. These mutations include monogenic conditions involving autistic symptoms. Furthermore, single nucleotide variants and de novo copy number variants add to disease susceptibility. Inherited Factors Related to ASDs Autosomal recessive loci areRead MoreThe National Institute Of Mental Health1690 Words   |  7 Pageswith autism define their children’s oral health as fair or poor. Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder have difficulties adjusting with the dental scenery, due mainly to their inability to communicate and socialize their thoughts and feelings. Dental office visits can be challenging to the child with autism and therefor the parent as well. It is our job as a dental professional to help make these office visits as pleasant as possible to both the patient and the caregiver. What is Autism SpectrumRead MoreEssay about Autism Spectrum Disorder and the Theories of Vygotsky1423 Words   |  6 PagesABSTRACT Research over the past decade has acknowledged the impacts of characteristics and life-functioning for individuals on the autism spectrum. Models of support or interventions strategies have been researched but little, or limited practical or resourced models appeared as accessible for families of older youth. The intention of this research paper was to investigate a specific activity group for youth on the autism spectrum. The group runs concurrently with a parent group and is funded throughRead MoreThe Autism Spectrum Disorder ( Asd )1636 Words   |  7 Pagesm Spectrum Disorder This paper will cover many aspects of Autism Spectrum Disorder, also commonly known as ASD. It will identify reginal, national and global statistics of the occurrence of ASD, predisposing factors, usual signs and symptoms of ASD, and tests used for diagnosis. It will also analyze both medical, surgical and psychosocial aspects of the care needed by patients with ASD, interdisciplinary interventions, comorbidities commonly associated with Autism, and the prognosis of these patientsRead MoreHistory Of Autism Spectrum Disorder719 Words   |  3 PagesOverview of Autism Spectrum Disorder History and Current Research on Causes and Diagnostic Criteria of Autism Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a relatively new diagnoses within the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders fifth edition (DSM-5) created by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). ASD is a combination of multiple disorders that were deemed to have similar criteria and therefor too difficult to adequately give different diagnoses. The original discovery and diagnosticRead MoreThe Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, places autism in a more1000 Words   |  4 Pages The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, places autism in a more extensive diagnostic bracket called autism spectrum disorder. This encompasses a range of autism-related disorders that vary in severity. It is one of the most severe, chronic, behavioral disorders of childhood. Swiss psychiatrist Eugene Bleuler referred to autistic disorder as an unusual way of thinking among people with schizophrenia. A more in-depth explanation o f autistic thinking is the propensityRead MoreAutism : A Type Of Autism913 Words   |  4 Pageschildren will be born with a type of Autism. This number has doubled since the mid-1990’s (Nature Education). Autism affects 1.5 million people (Howard). Autism develops within the first years of life and is four times more likely to be present in boys than in girls (Kinsey). Some researchers believe autism caused by failure to prune sufficient nerve cells, or to get rid of damaged nerve cells in the proper manner (Howard). There is treatment for all types of autism and are available but none are knownRead MoreWhat Do We Know About Autism Spectrum Disorder?1390 Words   |  6 PagesAbout Autism Spectrum Disorder? Actress Holly Robinson Peete once stated, â€Å"I m not a doctor or scientist. I m just a mom. But I do think there s a genetic predisposition, and there are environmental triggers. I feel like that combination, in my child s case, is what resulted in autism.† Holly Robinson could have not said it in a better way. What is the cause of autism? Is autism solely caused by genetics or a combination of genetics and environmental influences? What does make up autism spectrum

American Literature - 11652 Words

American Literature through Time To find out more about a particular literature time period, click on the links below: ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · Puritan Times Rationalism/Age of Enlightenment American Renaissance/Romanticism Gothic Realism Naturalism Modernism Harlem Renaissance Postmodernism Contemporary Puritan Times period of American Literature - 1650-1750 Content: ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · errand into the wilderness be a city upon a hill Christian utopia Genre/Style: ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · sermons, diaries personal narratives captivity narratives jeremiads written in plain style Effect: ï‚ · ï‚ · instructive reinforces authority of the Bible and church Historical Context: ï‚ · ï‚ · a person s fate is determined by God all people are corrupt and must†¦show more content†¦Genre/Style: ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · short story, novel characters usually lower class or lower middle class fictional world is commonplace and unheroic; everyday life is a dull round of daily existence characters ultimately emerge to act heroically or adventurously with acts of violence, passion, and/or bodily strength in a tragic ending Effect: ï‚ · this type of literature continues to capture audiences in present day: the pitting of man against nature Historical Context: ï‚ · writers reflect the ideas of Darwin (survival of the fittest) and Karl Marx (how money and class structure control a nation) Modernism period of American Literature - 1900-1946 Content: ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · dominant mood: alienation and disconnection people unable to communicate effectively fear of eroding traditions and grief over loss of the past Genre/Style: ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · highly experimental allusions in writing often refer to classical Greek and Roman writings use of fragments, juxtaposition, interior monologue, and stream of consciousness writers seeking to create a unique style Effect: ï‚ · common readers are alienated by this literature Historical Context: ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · overwhelmingShow MoreRelatedThe American Of American Literature1425 Words   |  6 PagesAmerican literature is the literature written or produced in the area of the United States and its receding colonies. American literature as a whole is the written literary work, and the new England colonies were the center of early American literature. American drama attained international status only in the 1920s and 1930s, with the works of Eugene O’Neil, who won four Pulitzer prizes and the Noble prize. During the Middle of the 20th century, American drama was dominated by the works of eminentRead MoreThe American Dream Through Literature1496 Words   |  6 Pagesconcept of the American Dream. That is, that any person regardless of circumstances of birth can become successful through hard work and persistence, regardless of where they came from. Despite many arguments on whether that’s achievable or not, it continues to be a persistent topic in American culture. As such, the A merican Dream can be seen though literature, which often is a lens into life during the time of its writing. It would make sense, then, to chronicle the appearance of the American Dream throughRead MoreHow Mark Twain Influenced American Literature1641 Words   |  7 PagesHow Mark Twain Influenced American Literature When you think of the start of American Literature, what comes to your mind? Authors such as Walt Whitman, Ernest Hemmingway, Emily Dickinson, Charles Dickens, and Mark Twain stick out in our minds. They were the face of post-civil war and social realism poetry. Today we will take a closer look at Mark Twain, who was also known as the â€Å"Father† of American Literature. His work has survived more than 100 years after his death. Mark Twain was born inRead MoreErnest Hemingway, a Legacy for American Literature1550 Words   |  7 PagesErnest Hemingway, A legacy for American Literature Some say that Hemingways personal life should disqualify him from the literature canon. They state that his torrent affairs, his alcoholism, and his mental state should preclude him from entry into the canon. These are the very things that help to make Hemingway a unique writer. Although his genre is fiction, he relies on his real life experiences with the people and places that he visited. The very definition of the literary canon disputes theseRead MorePostmodernism in American Literature Essay1390 Words   |  6 PagesPostmodernism in American literature The novel Beloved by Toni Morrison often makes us question the credibility of what is being told, and uses many striking, sudden shifts between the past and present, making it difficult to distinguish between reality and fiction. This blurring of the truth is a common element of postmodern fiction. In fact, many scholars would say that Beloved is a great example of postmodernism. (Ebrahimi 2005) Morrison uses this technique to bring about the sufferingRead MoreMark Twains Influence on American Literature Essay examples1208 Words   |  5 PagesSamuel Langhorne Clemens, better known by the pseudonym Mark Twain, has been central to American literature for over a century. His seemingly effortless diction accurately exemplified America’s southern culture. From his early experiences in journalism to his most famous fictional works, Twain has remained relevant to American writing as well as pop culture. His iconic works are timeless and have given inspiration the youth of Amer ica for decades. He distanced himself from formal writing andRead MoreEssay about Influences that Have Shaped American Literature1001 Words   |  5 PagesInfluences that Have Shaped American Literature There have been a number of influences that have shaped American literature. From the time that Western Europeans founded the country to the inclusion of Native American lore to the contributions of such literary giants as Mark Twain and Carol Sandburg, the composition of American Literature has been both constant and ever changing. In deed as much as America, itself, is a melting pot of diversity within a cultural concern, so too is this considerableRead MoreErnest Hemmingway : A Spectacular And Complex Author That Changed The World Of American Literature1914 Words   |  8 Pagescomplex author that changed the world of American literature through his words. Hemmingway became an American novelist, journalist, and short story writer that published most of his work between the 1920’s and 1950’s. Hemmingway had a major impact on the world of writing, and a strong influence on 20th century literature during his lifetime. Hemmingway’s life was full of adventures from around the globe, and these experiences inspired his works of literature. The writing style Hemmingway used was simpleRead MoreThe Influence of History on American Literature Essay1546 Words   |  7 Pagesbe After the Fact†¦Ã¢â‚¬  is how Stephan Crane introduced his harrowing story, â€Å"The Open Boat,† but this statement also shows that history influences American Literature. Throughout history, there has been a connection among literary works from different periods. The connection is that History, current events, and social events have influenced American Literature. Authors, their literary works, and the specific writing styles; are affected and influenced by the world around them. Authors have long used experiencesRead More Essay on Literacy in African-American Literature2284 Words   |  10 PagesLevels of Literacy in African-American Literature - Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, Song of Solomon, and Push      Ã‚  Ã‚   Through literacy will come emancipation. So runs a theme throughout the various selections we have read thus far. But emancipation comes in many forms, as does literacy. The various aspects of academic literacy are rather obvious in relation to emancipation, especially when one is confronted with exclusion from membership in the dominant culture. In the various slave

Education Religion And Education - 2010 Words

Religion in Education Public education in America was first founded April 23, 1635 at the Boston Latin School in Boston, Massachusetts. However the â€Å"first town in the U.S. to establish a free, tax-supported public school† was founded in 1644 in Dedham, Massachusetts (Walking Tour, 2010). Coincidentally though the teacher in Dedham, the first tax-funded public education, was Rev. Ralph Wheelock. Reverend Wheelock tied together education and religion to efficiently nurture youth to become contributing civil, community members of society and not just to advance technology and science. As the seed of education in America, Dedham antedating exemplified our current educational system; tax-funded, open to the public, and advanced society as a†¦show more content†¦Disconnecting the relationship of church and state is an issue of government endorsement and religious freedom. This public policy has become an issue of government endorsement as tax dollars are utilized to fund â€Å"hospitals operated by religious organizations, [and] chaplains are provided in the armed forces as well as in Congress† (Dye, 2013). The supplement of these services are direct endorsements of influencing religion and an even more threatening association of respecting a denomination. As the government funds these programs they construct a relationship between which religions they are funding, furthermore impeding other religions as one is favored more than the consequent. Addressing Religion in Education In the 1925 the Supreme Court case Pierce v. Society of Sisters, the court struck down the Oregon Compulsory Act of 1922 which â€Å"forc[ed] [students] to accept instruction from public teachers only,† and therefore were not allowed to attend private religious schools as they were private. The court interpreted this as in impedance of â€Å"free exercise† found within the First Amendment and Due Process clause within the Fourteenth Amendment (Dye, 199). In the 1947 Supreme Court case Everson v. Board of Education, the court upheld â€Å"bus transportation for parochial school children at public expense on the grounds that the wall of separation between church and state does not prohibit from adopting a general

The Forbidden Game The Kill Chapter 11 Free Essays

string(22) " Michael in the back\." They were all four waiting for her when she got out. Summer said, â€Å"Where’ve you been?† Audrey said, â€Å"Did you-â€Å" Jenny nodded over Summer’s head. Audrey hiked up a copper eyebrow. We will write a custom essay sample on The Forbidden Game: The Kill Chapter 11 or any similar topic only for you Order Now â€Å"Just a little unscheduled detour,† Jenny murmured to Dee and Michael. She said to Summer, â€Å"I’m okay. Everything’s okay.† Summer’s MM’s were lying scattered on the ground. â€Å"I don’t like people disappearing,† she said. â€Å"Aw, honey, it’s gonna be all right,† Michael said and patted her awkwardly. â€Å"We told her where we are and sort of basically what’s going on,† he said to Jenny. Jenny’s buoyancy at finding Summer was gone; the effervescence had fizzled out of her blood. Julian was going to do something nasty-but what could be worse than what he’d already done? Since she’d known Julian, he’d chased her with UFOs, dark elves, and giant insects-not to mention a Shadow Wolf and Snake. He’d lurked in the shadows of her room and hissed terrifying messages at her in the dark. He’d caught her in a cave-in, left her alone to drown, and menaced her with a cyber-lion. He’d kidnapped her and hunted her throughout two worlds. What could he do to top all that? â€Å"Where do we go next?† Audrey said. They looked around. Nothing in the immediate vicinity was lit up. The park was completely dark and dead silent around them. â€Å"Here, hold this,† Dee said to Jenny. Jenny took the flashlight and said, â€Å"Oh, be careful. † Dee was shinning up one of the old-fashioned green-painted lampposts. â€Å"I can see the lighthouse on the island,† she said at the top with one long leg hooked over the crosspiece which supported a lantern. â€Å"And there’re a lot of trees everywhere†¦ . The Ferris wheel looks cool, it’s sort of rising out of them like a mountain rising out of clouds.† â€Å"Is it lit up?† â€Å"The only thing that’s lit is something toward the back-it’s got a big waterwheel and some boats shaped like swans.† â€Å"The Tunnel of Love,† Jenny said. Dee came down and they started toward the Tunnel of Love, Jenny guiding them. It was another ride she’d loved as a kid-not because it had anything to do with love, but because it was dark, and cool, and she’d loved the swan boats. Now, the thought of going into that tunnel was-well, it was better not to think about it. They were skirting the lake when they saw the shape among the trees. â€Å"It’s a critter!† Michael said. â€Å"Only a big one!† The flashlight beams caught it briefly, even as it moved back into the trees. It was big, and Jenny had a glimpse of reddish skin like tanned leather. â€Å"It’s got a head, so it can’t be P.C. or Slug,† Audrey said. â€Å"Who or who?† asked Summer. â€Å"Never mind. We’d better just watch out for it,† Jenny said, and they did, keeping their backs to the water and watching the trees. I should have asked Julian about them, she thought. Aloud, she said, â€Å"What are they, d’you think? And how come they’re running around loose?† â€Å"Other people the Shadow Men have caught,† said Dee. â€Å"Pets,† said Michael. â€Å"Or maybe just part of the general ambiance,† Audrey said grimly. Whatever the thing had been, Jenny felt an instinctive horror and revulsion for it, just as she’d felt for the little gray one that had looked like a withered fetus. Summer didn’t join the conversation at all. She just hurried lightly along, one hand gripping Jenny’s sleeve, staring at everything they passed. She was like a large blue butterfly skimming in their midst. They were a motley group, Jenny thought-Summer in her springtime dress and Dee’s camouflage jacket, Audrey with her arm tied up in a sling made of Michael’s undershirt. Jenny herself carrying Dee’s flashlight. Michael was carrying his own flashlight, while Dee carried Audrey’s pick. The other weapons had all gotten lost along the way. Jenny noticed that Dee kept her distance from Audrey. Things still weren’t right with Dee. She was too quiet, too un-exuberant. Sure they were in danger, but Dee loved danger, she got up and ate it for breakfast, breathed it, went looking for it whenever she could. Dee should be enjoying this. Jenny edged closer and said softly, â€Å"You know, Audrey didn’t mean anything by that-when she said not to put your hand in the MM’s machine.† Dee shrugged. â€Å"I know.† She went on looking straight ahead. â€Å"Really she didn’t. She’s just like my mom, sometimes she’s got to say things for your own good.† â€Å"Sure. I know.† Jenny gave up. They passed a food stand just before they got to the Tunnel of Love. Jenny had an urge to break in-even a cold hot dog would be good right now, even a bun-but she didn’t say anything. They had two gold coins. They were so close. They couldn’t stop for anything now. Blue and red and purple lights shone on the waterwheel in front of the Tunnel of Love. There was a rustic old mill behind the waterwheel, and a sign on the tunnel. In the afternoon, in the real park, the sign had read: tunnel of love. Now it read: tunnel of love and d-. The last word was obscured by clusters of ivy. â€Å"I can’t read it,† Jenny said. â€Å"Death, probably. As in ‘Love and death are the only two things that really matter.’ N’est-ce pas?† Audrey said. â€Å"Oh, spiffy,† said Michael. Summer got a firmer grip on Jenny’s sleeve. A swan boat was waiting at the loading dock, its white wings arched gracefully by its sides, its neck a supple curve. Beads of water glistened on the plastic. Jenny didn’t want to get into it. If that head turns around – But they didn’t have any choice. This was obviously the right place, awake and waiting for them. If Jenny wanted the third gold coin, she had to get on the ride. â€Å"Come on, people,† she said. The boat tilted as they got in-Jenny and Dee on the front seat with Summer between them, Audrey and Michael in the back. You read "The Forbidden Game: The Kill Chapter 11" in category "Essay examples" They sat on wooden boards. As soon as they were all in, the swan began to move. â€Å"Did you notice that cave looking like a face this afternoon?† Michael said as they approached the tunnel. Jenny hadn’t. The fiberglass rock did look like a face now, with crags and shadows forming the eyes and nose. The gaping mouth was the tunnel itself. Inside, it was dank and dark, with a musty smell. And quiet. That afternoon there had been the sounds of people talking, the occasional echoing laugh. Now all Jenny could hear was the quiet lapping of water around the boat. She was still holding the flashlight Dee had given her. and she trained it on the water, the walls, the swan’s head. All unexciting. The water was dark green and murky, the walls were damp and trickly, the swan’s head was staying put. â€Å"Where’s the stuff-the scenes and everything?† Michael whispered. It was a whispering kind of place. â€Å"I don’t know,† Jenny said, just as softly. That afternoon there had been illuminated dioramas-silly things like Stone Age people playing cards and painting dinosaurs on the cave walls. Now there was nothing. The swan boat went on gliding smoothly into darkness. That was when Jenny noticed something wrong with the flashlight. The light was getting dimmer. â€Å"Hey,† she said and turned it toward her. Orange. The white beam was receding into a sullen orange glow. She banged it on the swan’s neck and immediately wished she hadn’t. It made a startlingly loud sound, and the light got even dimmer. â€Å"Oh, criminy-mine, too,† Michael said. She could hear the jingle of metal as he shook it. â€Å"We should have kept just one on, to save the batteries,† Dee muttered. â€Å"I thought of that before, and then I forgot. I’m stupid.† Even in the midst of her worry Jenny was shocked at this. Dee didn’t talk that way. â€Å"Look, Dee, if anybody should have thought of it-â€Å" â€Å"There it goes,† Michael said. There was now complete darkness from the backseat. Jenny had been thumbing the switch of her flashlight and screwing and unscrewing the top. but it didn’t make any difference. She could barely see the dim orange bulb. When she shook it, it went out altogether. â€Å"Spiffy, spiffy, spiffy,† Michael said. Audrey said sharply, â€Å"Does anybody feel like we’re slowing down?† It was hard to tell in the dark. Jenny was thoroughly sick of darkness-it seemed as if she’d spent all night blind, wondering what might be coming at her from which direction. But she thought Audrey could be right. The lapping water was quieter. The only motion she could feel was the gentle swaying of the boat from side to side. There was a quiet splash. â€Å"We’re not moving,† Dee said. â€Å"Dee, get your hand out of the water!† Dee muttered something inaudible, but Jenny heard the drip as she took her hand out. â€Å"I don’t like this,† Summer said. Jenny didn’t, either-and she especially didn’t like the thought of getting out of the boat and sloshing around trying to find their way. â€Å"So we’re stranded,† she murmured. Everyone else was very still and tense. Wondering what’s coming at us, and from which direction†¦ . She could think of lots of things, all of them nasty. And she had time to think, because for a long while they just sat there, the swan boat rocking gently in the darkness. â€Å"Just don’t imagine anything,† Audrey said through her teeth from the backseat. â€Å"I’m trying not to,† Michael answered defensively. But of course it was impossible, like trying not to think of a pink elephant. The harder Jenny tried not to imagine what Julian might do to them, the quicker the images crowded into her mind. Every nightmare she’d ever had was suddenly clamoring for her attention. â€Å"I can’t take this anymore,† Summer breathed. Dee exhaled sharply. â€Å"No. Look, I’m gonna-â€Å" Light. It started as a fuzzy blue patch in Jenny’s peripheral vision, and brightened when she turned to look at it. Like a spotlight in some overly dramatic stage show. Two other spotlights went on, one red, one purple. The colors of the floodlights outside-and the colors of the stained-glass lamps in the More Games shop, Jenny thought. The place where she’d first seen Julian. â€Å"It all comes down to this, doesn’t it?† Julian’s voice said. He moved out of the darkness, into the circle where the spotlights mingled. He was wearing a T-shirt with rolled-up sleeves, a black vest, and neat black boots. There was some kind of bangle around his upper arm. He looked urban and barbaric, like somebody you might find wandering the bad parts of town at night. Some street kid with no place to go and too much knowledge behind his blue eyes. Summer took one look at him and crouched behind Dee. Jenny felt at a disadvantage. Julian was in the place where the diorama should be-but she felt as if the five of them in the flimsy plastic boat were the show. Julian was in a perfect position to watch whatever happened to them-and they couldn’t even stand without risking an upset. â€Å"You were wrong about the sign on this ride,† Julian said casually. He stood easily, seeming to enjoy their reactions as they stared at him. â€Å"It’s not the Tunnel of Love and Death. It’s the Tunnel of Love-and Despair.† The five in the boat just looked at him. Finally Dee said, â€Å"So what?† â€Å"Just thought you’d like to know.† He flipped something in the air, caught it. Jenny couldn’t tell what color the thing was because of the lights, but it gleamed. â€Å"What, this? Oh, yes, it’s a doubloon,† Julian said, looking into his palm as if only just then noticing it. Everyone in the boat exchanged glances. The boat rocked gently. â€Å"Don’t you want to know what you have to do to get it?† Jenny didn’t, but she felt sure he was going to tell them anyway. â€Å"You just have to listen, that’s all. We’ll have a little conversation. A chat.† It was up to Jenny to answer, and she knew it. â€Å"About what?† she said tensely, leaning back to look at him around Dee. â€Å"This and that. The weather. Nuclear disarmament. You.† â€Å"Us?† Michael squeaked, startled into speech. â€Å"Sure. Look at you-all of you. What a pathetic bunch. And you’re trying to storm the Shadow World?† â€Å"Right,† Dee muttered and started to get up. â€Å"You never learn, do you?† Julian said and took a step toward her. That was all he did, but Dee sat down, only partly because Jenny had grabbed her arm and pulled her back. Julian was scaring Jenny right now-not with any overt display of power, but just with himself. What he was. Julian picked up moods and put them on like clothes, and right now the brightness in his eyes, the quick rise of his breathing, the way his lips were slightly skinned back from his teeth-they all scared Jenny. He was in the mood to destroy things, to bring down some ultimate disaster, she thought. Not just to hunt, but to kill. â€Å"Please, let’s all just be calm,† she said. Julian was still looking at Dee, with bright sickness shining in his eyes. â€Å"Maybe you’re just too stupid to learn,† he said. â€Å"That’s the real reason you don’t want to go to college, isn’t it? You know you’ll never be as smart as your mother.† â€Å"Don’t rise to him,† Jenny said. â€Å"Dee, turn around-just don’t listen.† Dee didn’t turn. Jenny could only see her silhouette, and the blue light glistening on the velvet nubs of hair on her head, but she could feel the stress in Dee’s body. â€Å"All this athletic stuff is just a front because you know you’ve disappointed her,† Julian said. â€Å"You’re inferior where it counts most.† â€Å"Dee, you know that’s not true†¦ .† â€Å"She knows she doesn’t know anything. She’s been wrong about so many things recently-like about Audrey and the lion. Like about Audrey’s mother. Imagine Mrs. Myers having done something Dee always meant to do.† â€Å"You leave her alone!† Jenny said. â€Å"And she’s nothing without her confidence. Haven’t you noticed?† â€Å"Shut up!† Dee shouted. It was a bad place for shouting, there were distant echoes. What frightened Jenny was the note of desperation in Dee’s voice. Dee never cried, but just now Dee’s voice sounded on the verge of tears. â€Å"Despair,† Jenny whispered suddenly. She reached around Dee to grip her arm. â€Å"Don’t you see what he’s trying to do? The Tunnel of Love and Despair-and he wants you to despair. To give up, to stop fighting.† â€Å"She should give up,† Julian agreed. He was breathless now, the queer wild look in his eyes brighter than ever. â€Å"She’s all talk. Hot air. Strutting around, building her muscles, saying ‘Everybody look at me.’ But there’s nothing underneath.† Jenny thought of something. She leaned in toward Dee, her fingers biting into Dee’s arm, and said, â€Å"I am my only master.† Dee’s head turned slightly, like a startled bird. â€Å"I am my only master,† Jenny whispered urgently, prompting her. â€Å"Go on, Dee. You said it, and it’s true. He can’t do anything to you. He doesn’t count. You are your only master.† She felt Dee’s breath go out. â€Å"Gets her philosophy from kung fu movies,† Julian said. â€Å"Thinks fortune cookies are great literature.† â€Å"I am my only master!† Dee said. â€Å"That’s right.† Jenny’s throat hurt. She kept holding on to Dee’s arm. Dee’s neck twisted like a black swan’s, to look at Jenny just for a moment. Jenny got a glimpse of tear tracks on the dark skin, shining blue and purple in the light, then Dee turned back. â€Å"I am my only master,† she said clearly, to Julian. There was a stirring in the backseat. â€Å"She’s smart, too,† Audrey said, astonishing Jenny. â€Å"And brave. She’s done all sorts of brave things since I got hurt. She didn’t mean to hurt me, and I never thought she did.† Dee turned and gave Audrey one sloe-eyed look of gratitude, and her shoulders straightened. She sat as proud and tall as Nefertiti. â€Å"Besides, college and books aren’t everything,† Michael said, amazing Jenny further. â€Å"I thought they were-to you,† Julian said. He was looking at Michael now, and his voice was beautiful, like ebony and silver. Michael seemed to get smaller. â€Å"You’re the one who reads about things because you’re afraid to actually do them. You talk about your books-or make jokes. The class clown. But people are laughing at you, not with you, you know.† â€Å"No, they’re not,† Michael said, which was another surprise for Jenny. She wouldn’t have thought Michael would speak up for himself. â€Å"You’re a nothing. Just a funny little fat boy that people laugh at. You’re a joke.† â€Å"No, I’m not,† Michael said doggedly. Jenny felt a surge of admiration. Michael was holding out-maybe because he’d gotten teased and stomped on at school. He’d heard it all before. But Julian’s face was more confident than ever-and more cruel. He flashed a smile that sent chills up Jenny’s arms. â€Å"We won’t talk about the little rituals you had when you were a kid,† he told Michael. â€Å"Like how you had to tear the toilet paper up into tiny pieces, exactly even. Or if you saw the word death, you had to count to eighteen. To chai-‘life’ in Hebrew.† Michael’s chest was heaving. Jenny opened her mouth, outraged, but Julian went urbanely on. â€Å"We’ll just cut to the chase. Ask your girlfriend if she’s ever called you ‘Tubby’ behind your back.† Michael turned on Audrey. Jenny could see that his defenses had torn; his face had that rumpled, not-ready-for-company look that meant he was about to cry. â€Å"Did you say that?† Audrey looked pale in the blue and purple lights, her lipstick garish. She seemed ready to cry, too. â€Å"Did you say that?† â€Å"Of course she did,† Julian said. â€Å"She said lots of other things, too. About how her dream boy was six feet tall and blond and a surfer. About how she only took up with you to fill in the time until she found someone better.† Michael was looking at Audrey. â€Å"Did you say that?† he repeated, his voice an anguished plea. Jenny willed Audrey to say no. Audrey looked back at Michael for a long, horrible moment, then said, â€Å"Yes.† Michael turned away. â€Å"Because you were good for a laugh,† Julian put in helpfully. â€Å"Don’t you want to laugh now?† â€Å"Shut up, you bastard!† Jenny shouted furiously. She was sick with her own impotence-she’d helped Dee, but there was nothing she could do to help Michael. Not with this. â€Å"I told you in the very beginning about the Game,† Julian said. â€Å"Desires unveiled. Secrets revealed. Don’t you remember?† Audrey wasn’t listening, she was looking only at Michael, her whole being focused on him. â€Å"I did say that,† she said fiercely. â€Å"A long time ago. I didn’t even really mean it then, I was just showing off.† â€Å"You still said it,† Michael said dully, not turning. â€Å"I said it before, Michael. Before you showed me that what people look like isn’t important. Before I found out I loved you.† She dissolved in sobs. Michael turned halfway. His dark eyes were wide open. â€Å"Oh-look,† he said. â€Å"Don’t. It’s okay.† â€Å"It’s not okay,† Audrey stormed. â€Å"Michael Allen Cohen-you’re an idiot!† â€Å"That’s what he said-† Michael muttered. Audrey shook him, turning him the rest of the way around. â€Å"I love you,† she said. â€Å"You made me fall in love with you. I don’t care how tall you are or what color your hair is-I care about you. You make me laugh. You’re smart. You’re gentle. And you’re real, you’re a real person, not some jock with a facade that’s going to fall apart when I get to know him. I know you already, and I love you, you idiot. I don’t care what you do with toilet paper.† â€Å"When I was seven,† Michael said. Audrey was still crying, and he reached out a stubby thumb to wipe the tears off her cheeks. â€Å"You’re a good kisser, too,† Audrey said, sniffling. She put her arms around him and laid her head on his shoulder. â€Å"Hey, I’m a great kisser,† Michael whispered. â€Å"As I will demonstrate when we get out of this freakin’ freak show.† He cradled her protectively. Jenny felt a flush of pride and joy-in their strength, in the tenderness in Michael’s face and the way Audrey clung to him. She looked at Julian defiantly. Julian wasn’t happy. He obviously didn’t like the way things were going. Then he smiled, sharp as a sword. â€Å"That’s right, cry, you whining baby,† he said, his eyes fixed on Audrey’s auburn head. â€Å"But make sure you don’t smear your mascara. You’re nothing but a painted mannequin.† His voice was venomous. â€Å"We’re not listening!† Michael said. He began talking to Audrey, softly and rapidly, right in her ear. â€Å"You’re going to turn out like your mother, you know-a shrill and contentious bitch. Your father’s words, I believe. You’re afraid that you’re not capable of having real feelings like other people.† Audrey didn’t even lift her head. Michael went on talking to her. â€Å"I’d say she’s doing a pretty good imitation of having feelings,† Dee said dryly. â€Å"Why don’t you just back off, creep?† Instead, Julian whirled on her-no, not on her. He was looking behind her, at Summer. â€Å"And as for the brainless bit of fluff in front-â€Å" Summer collapsed onto the floor of the boat. â€Å"I know I’m stUDid.† she whisnereri Jenny’s fury lifted her to her feet, making the swan boat rock. â€Å"Oh, no, you don’t,† she said. â€Å"If you have something to say, say it to me.† And then she was doing what she’d least wanted to do all this time. She was getting out of the boat, splashing down into the water. It was cool, but it only came up to her knees. She splashed through it without letting herself think what might be swimming in it. Waves churned up, wetting her thighs. She reached the diorama in a few steps and scrambled up on it. Then she was facing Julian. â€Å"Say it to me,† she said. â€Å"If you have the guts.† How to cite The Forbidden Game: The Kill Chapter 11, Essay examples

Leadership and Governance Information Technology †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Leadership and Governance Information Technology. Answer: Introduction Leadership within any organization plays a vital role in the success of that organization. Leaders have the responsibility of guiding their team and ensuring that their followers remain motivated and focused. Leadership roles are consistently evolving (Mujtaba McFarlane, 2005). Effective organizational leaderships is pivotal to ensure enhanced productivity of the organization. There are various leaders who have changed the shape of the world through their exceptional leadership abilities and transformational visions. This report highlights the story of a renowned leader who started his career as a mere tea vendor in the small city of Vadnagar in India and went on to lead the country as a Prime Minister of the nation (Marino, 2014). Through this report, Narendra Modis competent leadership styles have been thrown light upon and his adopted strategies have been linked with leadership theories in order to gain a deeper understanding of him as a leader. Born in 1950 to a middle class family of Gujarat, India, Narendra Modi was a bright student who helped his father sell tea at the railway station in his hometown. He entered the Indian politics in 2001 and served four terms as the Chief Minister of Gujarat. On 26th May 2014, Narendra Modi was elected as the Prime Minister of the largest democracy in the world. Since then, his leadership style and efforts to change the face of the Indian economy have garnered him attention from around the world (Rajput, 2014). Today the man has become a global leader and his leadership styles are inspiring leaders from different walks of life. Narendra Modi has become a brand which has all the right ingredients of a global dominance and leadership. Narendra Modis leadership styles have been a source of inspiration for various leaders. Leading an entire country is a lot more demanding than leading an organization. The leader is required to change his leadership style in the face of changing circumstances (Goleman, 2017). Narendra Modi has demonstrated suitable styles of leadership and adapted effective strategies in order to lead the country in a competent manner. Strategic leadership style In order to take control of and effectively manage an economy as large as India, Narendra Modi follows a Strategic leadership style. A strategic leader has the ability to influence his followers to enhance the prospects of a longer term success of the organization (Mintzberg, 2009). Narendra Modi has a solid vision for the country which continues to motivate him to lead the country to excellence. One of the most important qualities of a leader is the ability to lead by example (Hackman Johnson, 2013). Narendra Modi has been taking significant steps in leading the country from the front. He has taken key interest in improving Indias international relationships with other nations especially with Russia, China, Japan, Malaysia, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and United States of America. He has spent a significant part of his term in conducting meetings with spokespersons of various nations. He leads the meetings and take initiative in establishing and improving mutually beneficial relationsh ips with other countries. This has turned India into an attractive destination for investments. FII and FDI investments within India are at their highest at the moment. This leads to overall improvement of the economy. Transformational leadership style Narendra Modi has also demonstrated transformational leadership. A transformational leader aims to change the face of the organization by bringing in a large scale transformation (Garcia-Morales et. al., 2012). A transformational leader has a long term vision for the organization. Narendra Modi has a vision a making India a country free from corruption, reduce unemployment, eradicate illiteracy and develop a self-sufficient economy. A strong vision of a leader requires the leader to lead by example, motivate people and handle conflicts effectively (Tourish, 2016). Transformational leaders have a strong risk appetite and are not afraid to move away from status quo. Narendra Modi has been working on making India a truly digital nation. Every citizen of the country can use either of driving license, passport, PAN card, ration card or school or college ID card as a legal identification card. However, Narendra Modi launched a campaign of UID (Unique identification) within the country. As a part of this campaign, a team was set up that worked towards creating a single identity card for every citizen of the country. Therefore he made is compulsory for every citizen to have an Adhaar card. This card has details of every individuals address, date of birth and full name. At present, that single identity card is linked to an individuals bank account, mobile phone, vehicle numbers or any sources of investment. This step has brought about a wave of transformation in the country and has organized the identification process to a large extent (Kossek, 2016). Similarly, in order to make India a self-sufficient economy, Narendra Modi initiated the Make in India campaign. Through this campaign, he encouraged 25 selected industries of the country to manufacture and produce their goods within India. In order to achieve this, he allowed 100% FDI in all the 25 sectors (Make In India, 2018). Import duties were also increased to encourage people to buy home grown products rather than imported substances. Owing to this campaign, India not only received a hefty investment amount from other countries but also India jumped to 100th place in the Ease of doing Business Index by the World Bank. Before the campaign, India was ranked 130th in 2016 (World Bank, 2018). This is largely beneficial in the longer run and Narendra Modi has demonstrated an excellent example of transformational leadership. Excellent communication skills are also an important attribute of effective leadership (Carter Greer, 2013). These decisions of the Prime Ministers often faced criticism from different parts of the country. However, Narendra Modi has been giving public speeches and writing open letter to the citizens of the country in order to create transparency about this decisions. Transparent decision making of a leader enhances trust in the team. Coercive leadership style Coercive leadership is also known as autocratic leadership style. This leadership style requires leaders to take strict decision by themselves with little or no participation from the team. A coercive leader says Do as I say (Castle Decker, 2011). In order to ensure that coercive leadership style is a success, a leader must be absolutely sure of his vision as well as his actions. Narendra Modi often has to take decisions which are highly autocratic in nature. However, it is important for the growth of the Indian economy. A Coercive leader must be aware that any negative repercussions of the decisions made by a coercive leader can make the team lose faith and trust in the leader (Northouse, 2018). Two years back in 2016, Narendra Modi took one such decision that changed the shape of Indian economy. In order to curb corruption and target the number of people with high values of black money, Narendra Modi declared two important currency denominations (INR 500 and INR 1000) illegal. He planned the move very thoughtfully, announced the decision on live news and made it effective immediately. Banks were issued new currency notes, the very same night and limits were defined about the value of currency that can be exchanged from the bank. This automatically adversely impacted all the citizens of the country who had accumulated black money in cash in large chunks. Reserve bank of India revealed that 99% of the old currency notes have returned to the banks (First Post, 2018). This ensures that the currencies present in the market are all legal. Overall, a single move from the Prime Minister helped the country recover INR 3000 billion. A Coercive leadership style requires leaders to take strong steps. This leadership style can only be successful if the leader has a strong vision and tactful planning ability for the betterment of the organization (Helms, 2012). Charismatic leadership Charismatic leaderships is the ability of a leader to motivate the team based on charisma, charm and persuasiveness of the leadership (Avolio Yammarino, 2013). Narendra Modi has a dynamic personality. Before starting his tenure as the Prime Minister of the country, he served four terms as the chief minister of Gujarat. Throughout his tenure, he earned immense appreciation from all the citizens of the country. He changed the entire landscape of Gujarat and improved the economy of the state. Charismatic leader must be confident and possess excellent oratory skills. This is important in order to persuade team members to perform better (Connelly, Gaddis Helton-Fauth, 2013). Narendra Modi as earned respect and appreciation throughout the globe owing to his personality and persuasiveness. Narendra Modi often participates in events and delivers seminars and sessions in order to enhance awareness about his decisions and create transparency within the country. He also visits schools, colleges as well as youth festivals in order to build a better rapport with youth of the country. He believes that the youth are the future of the country and it is important to be able to build trust with this segment. Narendra Modi has a unique charm and has a vibrant personality. He was the first prime minister of the country to ensure that all the speeches delivered by him across the globe would be done in Hindi which is the national language of India. He has also put efforts in meeting eminent figures of the country including those who are not associated from the Indian politics. He takes time to meet with Indian citizens who are making a significant difference in their industry. These people include Indian cricket team captain Virat Kohli, Global actress Priyanka Chopra, Olympics silver medalist PV Sindhu and Tennis player Sania Mirza. By associating with these people, he has been able to reach out to their audience as well. This leads to improved positioning of the leader in the minds of the followers. Leadership also understands the importance of social media (Poba-Nzaou et. al., 2016). This is precisely why Modi has been active across all social media platforms. Narendra Modis charisma and flamboyance has been known across the globe and through these, he has been able to create a large group of fiercely loyal followers who believe in his set of values and ethics. These efforts by the Prime Minister have bonded the country of India towards a single goal and this has been possible only due to the charisma of its leader Narendra Modi. Ethics of Narendra Modi Narendra Modi has always considered himself as a servant of the country. He strongly believes that all the individuals holding a public office are required to provide service to the team. Greenleafs theory of servant leadership is a timeless concept which associates true leadership as a service to others (Van Dierendonck, 2011). Narendra Modi lives a simple lifestyle and is much related to his roots of his middle class family. Narendra Modi has also taken various steps in ensuring that the countrys growth and development does not come at an expense of corrupt officials. Narendra Modi is a perfect example of ethics demonstrated by a leader. His understanding of right and wrong and ability to keep the growth of the country above everything else demonstrates excellence of his ethics. Ethics of a leader are often evident through the leaders moral judgments. There have been various instances where the Prime Minister has taken ethical calls in the face of strong dilemma. Such steps by the leader instil trust in the minds of his followers and motivate others also to stay on the path of righteousness. An ethical leader ensures that the organization grows in an ethical manner in order to ensure the long term sustainability and growth for the business. Conclusion Effective leadership plays a pivotal role in the success of any organization. A leader can easily make or break a team. Leaders of a team are bestowed upon with various responsibilities including motivating followers, guiding them in the right direction, having a clear vision and the addressing inter-team conflicts. A leader is also important in maintaining the atmosphere of the team. This report aims to introduce a dynamic leader, Narendra Modi, who is the current Prime Minister of India. Besides being the countrys prime minister, Narendra Modi is a globally renowned leader. There are various leadership styles that have been adopted by Narendra Modi depending upon different circumstances encountered by the PM. In order to remove corruption, Narendra Modi adopted a coercive leadership style and took strict measures to curb the same. For the betterment of the country, Modi adopted a strategic leadership approach. In order to bring about large scale changes in India, PM adopted a transformational leadership approach. Lastly, in order to build trust and communication with the youth of the country, Modi adopted a charismatic leadership approach. Narendra Modis leadership style has been a source of inspiration for people across the globe. The man has worked hard at ensuring the growth and development of the country. Today, India makes a significant mark in the world map and this has only been possible under the flamboyant leadership of Mr. Narendra Modi. References Avolio, B. J., Yammarino, F. J. (Eds.). (2013). Introduction to, and overview of, transformational and charismatic leadership. InTransformational and Charismatic Leadership: The Road Ahead 10th Anniversary Edition(pp. xxvii-xxxiii). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Carter, S. M., Greer, C. R. (2013). Strategic leadership: Values, styles, and organizational performance.Journal of Leadership Organizational Studies,20(4), 375-393. Castle, N. G., Decker, F. H. (2011). Top management leadership style and quality of care in nursing homes.The Gerontologist,51(5), 630-642. Connelly, S., Gaddis, B., Helton-Fauth, W. (2013). A closer look at the role of emotions in transformational and charismatic leadership. InTransformational and Charismatic Leadership: The Road Ahead 10th Anniversary Edition(pp. 299-327). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. First Post, (2018), Demonitisation, Available at https://www.firstpost.com/business/demonetisation-rbi-says-99-banned-notes-are-back-where-is-the-black-money-3991829.html, retrieved on 5 April, 2018. Garca-Morales, V. J., Jimnez-Barrionuevo, M. M., Gutirrez-Gutirrez, L. (2012). Transformational leadership influence on organizational performance through organizational learning and innovation.Journal of business research,65(7), 1040-1050. Goleman, D. (2017).Leadership That Gets Results (Harvard Business Review Classics). Harvard Business Press. Hackman, M. Z., Johnson, C. E. (2013).Leadership: A communication perspective. Waveland Press. Helms, L. (Ed.). (2012).Comparative political leadership. Springer. United States Kossek, E. E. (2016). Managing work-life boundaries in the digital age.Organizational Dynamics,45(3), 258-270. Make In India, (2018). Make in India: The vision, Available at https://www.makeinindia.com/article/-/v/make-in-india-reason-vision-for-the-initiative, Retrieved on 5 April, 2018. Marino, A. (2014).Narendra Modi: A political biography. HarperCollins Publishers India. Mintzberg, H. (2009).Managing. Berrett-Koehler Publishers. San Francisco. Mujtaba, B., McFarlane, A. D. (2005). Traditional and Virtual Performance Management Functions in the Age of Information Technology.The Review of Business Information Systems,9(3), 53. Northouse, P. G. (2018).Leadership: Theory and practice. Sage publications. Poba-Nzaou, P., Lemieux, N., Beaupr, D., Uwizeyemungu, S. (2016). Critical challenges associated with the adoption of social media: A Delphi of a panel of Canadian human resources managers.Journal of Business Research,69(10), 4011-4019. Tourish, D. (2014). Leadership, more or less? A processual, communication perspective on the role of agency in leadership theory.Leadership,10(1), 79-98. Van Dierendonck, D. (2011). Servant leadership: A review and synthesis.Journal of management,37(4), 1228-1261. World Bank, (2018). Doing business. Available at https://www.doingbusiness.org/data/exploreeconomies/india. Retrieved on 5 April, 2018.